January 1983:Shuttle astronaut selection

With the transfer of seven ex-military astronauts to NASA in 1969, the first generation of astronaut selection came to a close, in the years that followed, the number of astronauts on active duty dropped from 56 at the start of 1970 to only 27 in January 1978. The lack of flights, age and the lure of new goals exacted their toll. When the time came again to select astronauts, the process was in many ways a continuation of the old methods. There were differences, though, brought about by increased knowl¬ edge of human reaction to space flight, and advances in technology.

Changes

Before the advent of the Shuttle, astronauts had to be “all¬purpose”. Scientists astronauts had to meet'the same medical requirements as pilot astronauts and after selection they had to learn to fly jet aircraft. The Shuttle, because of its complexity, requires a more specialised crew, organised more along the lines of an airliner.

The astronauts are now divided into two groups: the pilots and the mission specialists. The pilot astronauts serve as both Shuttle Commanders and as actual pilots. The Commander has overall responsibility for the vehicle, crew, mission success and flight safety. The pilots assist the Commander in controlling and operating the Shuttle and also deploying and retrieving payloads, conducting EVA operations and supporting other payload operations.

Mission specialists have overall responsibility in the areas of crew activities, planning, consumables (such as electrical power, cooling and fluids), and other activities related to the experiments. They require a thorough understanding of Shuttle systems and mission requirements. They may also take part in EVA, payload handling, and repair and operate experiments.

Selections

In 1978 and 1980, the first Shuttle astronaut selections were made, with the criteria and procedures for the two years nearly identical. Pilot applicants had to have a Bachelor degree from an accredited institution in engineering, physical sciences or mathematics. In the 1980 selection, a biological degree was added. The prospective pilot astronaut also had to have at least 1000 hours pilot-in-command time with 2000 or more hours being desirable. High performance jet aircraft and flight test experience was highly desirable. In the 1980 selection, the flight time had to be in jets.

The pilot applicant also had to pass a NASA Class I spaceflight physical. This included a distant visual acuity of 20/50 (correctable to 20/20), a hearing loss not to exceed 50 db at 500 Hz and 25 db at 1000 and 2000 Hz, a systolic blood pressure not to exceed 140 or a diastolic greater than 90 mm Hg measured in a sitting position. And finally, a height of between 64 and 76 in. (1.63 to 1.93 m). These are the USAF/USN height standards.

The mission specialists had to have a Bachelor degree in engineering, biology, physical sciences or mathematics. In the 1980 selection, the mission specialist also had to have three years relevant experience. An advanced degree could be substituted (Master = 1 year, PhD = 3 years). Another change in the educational requirements was the elimination of degrees in technology, aviation and some in psychology from consideration. The would-be mission specialist also had to pass a NASA Class II physical. The blood pressure requirements were identical, the visual acuity dropped to 20/100 but stillcorrectable to 20/20. One ear could have a hearing loss of 35 db at 500 Hz and 30 db at 1000 and 2000 Hz. The other ear had to meet pilot standards. The height requirement was easier: 60 to 70 in. (1.52 to 1.93 m). One requirement was notable for its absence; nowhere in the application was an age limit ever mentioned. These lower standards ensured that the selection process was open to many more people than was previously possible. The strict requirements of previous selections had resulted in otherwise qualified people being eliminated because of such factors as height or age.

Another NASA goal was the selection of women, and people from minority ethnic groups. This had been a source of criticism during the 1960's. In February 1977 NASA hired Women in Motion, Inc. to publicise the forthcoming shuttle astronaut selection. The company’s founder, actress Nichelle Nichols, made public appearances and shared films encouraging qualified minorities and women to apply. Her acting experience included three years as Lt. Uhura in Star Trek. It should be stressed that there were no quotas; minority candidates were judged on their qualifications only. Civilian applicants wrote directly to NASA; military personnel applied to their services for initial screening, the best being sent on to NASA. The application forms are almost disappointingly simple. The SF 171 personal qualifications statement is the standard form filled out by anybody applying for a US Government job. It asks such 'questions as; name, birthdate. is the applicant available for overnight travel, special qualifications and skills, a list of employment, criminal record, education and subject grade, along with many others. Also included in the application package was SF 93, a report of medical history. It listed every medical condition imaginable from tooth fillings to cancer. Pilot astronauts had to fill in CSC Form 671: the supplemental record of aeronautical experience. Finally, JSC Form 490; one page listing what the applicant was applying for, grade point average, graduate examination record, number of combat missions and flight experience as a crew member. The applicants also had to send their college records.

The Choosing

At Houston, the first step was to find which applicants met the basic requirements. Nearly half did not. All of the military applicants, having been pre-screened, got past this hurdle. The survivors were then screened to find the most highly qualified. For the pilots, the criteria were: demonstrated performance, apparent motivation and potential, response to stressful environment, responsibility, breadth and quality of experience and relevance of education and training. For mission specialists, the selection panel looked for breadth and applicability of education and experience, demonstrated performance, responsibility and potential and unique qualifications or skills.

Once more, the numbers were pared down. The most highly qualified were again reviewed by the panels to find those to go to Houston for interviews. This time, for pilots, NASA looked for the quantity, quality and variety of flying experience. The academic aspect was a key factor for mission specialists. Spe¬ cifically; advanced degrees, diversity, applicability, quality and how recent. Related experience was also considered, as well as other unique skills or experience. The references of both pilots and mission specialists were carefully scrutinised. Many of the applicants, it was found, had shaped their education for an astronaut career. They brought with them a depth of education and experience that was not available ten years before. Their backgrounds were precisely what NASA had found most desirable. For the best,the final step was at hand.

A Week in Houston

The combining of medical tests and interviews was another change from previous selections. The process lasted 40 hours, a normal working week, broken up into medical tests, briefings and interviews. Many of the applicants, having read accounts of the medical tests of their predecessors, braced themselves to face similar horrors. Ironically, the tests the Shuttle astronauts faced were not all that different from an ordinary flight physical - just longer and more thorough. They lasted for some 18 to 20 hours and covered such areas as vision, cardiovascular health, exercise capacity, pulmonary functions and tolerance to acceleration forces.

The standards were designed to ensure the candidates were physically and temperamentally fit for space travel. The tests looked for any defect or disease that would interfere with duties requiring considerable physical exertion and dexterity, visual and auditory acuity and clear speech. Anything that would prevent the use of pressure suits, helmets or similar specialised equipment were also grounds for rejection. The physical detected any sensitivity to rapid changes in atmospheric pressure acceleration or weightlessness. Conditions that required frequent medical treatment or medication or that would be periodically disabling or would become so in time were also reasons for rejection.

About 15 hours were spent on briefings. NASA personnel described the Shuttle system and the roles, duties and responsibilities of the astronaut. The applicants also met the older astronauts and saw Houston facilities and personnel. The remaining hours were spent in interviews.

These interviews were conducted by two separate psychiatrists. subsequently dubbed Psy one and Psy two. Both men and women were asked for their reaction to the lack of privacy in mixed Shuttle crews. They were asked: "What should the senior astronaut aboard a disabled spacecraft do if there were only one space suit for six people?” Politics were also probed. In the 1978 selection, the Panama Canal and Northern Ireland were newsworthy. What would a black applicant do about South Africa if he were President? Jews were asked about the Middle East, whites were asked about flying with blacks and everybody was asked about flying with the Russians. To the latter question, one woman responded ‘Td fly with little green men if it meant getting into space”.

In all, 54 applicants made it through the tests and interviews in 1978 and 1980, moving on to become astronaut candidates to begin their period of evaluation and training. After this period, the candidates were made into full time federal employees. The civilian astronauts are now expected to serve for a minimum of five years, while the military astronauts' tour of duty is governed by a NASA/DOD memorandum of under¬ standing. At the time of the 1980 selection, this was seven years. A tour with NASA would be one part of an officer’s career intermixed with school, management and squadron assignments.

The New Astronauts

The backgrounds of the 54 astronauts chosen in the first two selections are very diverse. In terms of degrees, eight of the pilots hold Bachelor degrees and 15 have Masters. Eight have their highest degrees in aeronautical engineering, one in physics and the remaining 14 in other engineering areas. The mission specialists have between them: one Bachelor, 15 Masters and 17 Doctorates. There are five medical doctors, one biochemist, seven aeronautical engineers, four astronomers, three physicists, one geologist and ten in various engineering fields. Many have multi-disciplinary backgrounds that enable them to cover several fields. One doctor has a degree in mechanical engineering, another has the combination of psy¬ chology, engineering and medicine.

Their individual stories are also informative. Mary Cleave weighs only 981b (45 kg) and stands 62 in. (1.6 m) tall. She tried to get into aviation as a stepping stone to space but shecould not be a stewardess because of her height; she was too short even to sell tickets! Undaunted, she took flying lessons and earned a Bachelor degree in biology, a Master in botany and a Doctorate in civil engineering. At the time of her selection in 1980, she was working in a water research laboratory. At the other extreme is Steve Nagel, who at 74 in. (1.8 m) would have been too tall for the Apollo pro¬gramme. Fred Gregory, a black Air Force pilot, overcame a seemingly unsurmountable setback. His piloting experience was mainly in helicopters, both flying rescue missions in Vietnam and as a helicopter test pilot. He had limited experience in jets. The Air Force reviewed all of its personnels' applications and, in its view, his experience in helicopters was not suitable for nomination to NASA. Gregory submitted a civilian application and offered to resign from the Air Force if that was required. He was selected in 1978. Husband and wife William and Anna Fisher both applied for the 1978 selection but Anna was picked and William was not even called for an interview. Subsequently, he learned to fly, received a Master in biomedical engineering and was picked in the 1980 group.

Future Selections

At the time of the 1980 selection, NASA announced an annual selection programme. The process was to be conducted on a regular basis to prevent long periods between selections. The number picked and the interval would depend on Shuttle needs and the loss of established astronauts. It is expected that the older astronauts will start to retire once they make their long-awaited flights. Replacements will also be needed for military personnel when their tour of duty with NASA is completed. Gaps will be filled as soon as they occur.

Virtually all of the Shuttle astronauts had wanted to be astronauts for years but they were hampered by the infrequent selections. With regular selections, students can plan their academic and professional work with the assurance that they will have at least the chance to apply.